8 Organic Compounds
Organic Molecules and Functional Groups
Functional groups are groups of molecules attached to organic molecules and give them specific identities or functions.
Learning Objectives
Describe the importance of functional groups to organic molecules
Key Takeaways
Key Points
- Functional groups are collections of atoms that attach the carbon skeleton of an organic molecule and confer specific properties.
- Each type of organic molecule has its own specific type of functional group.
- Functional groups in biological molecules play an important role in the formation of molecules like DNA, proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids.
- Functional groups include: hydroxyl, methyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, phosphate, and sulfhydryl.
Key Terms
- hydrophobic: lacking an affinity for water; unable to absorb, or be wetted by water
- hydrophilic: having an affinity for water; able to absorb, or be wetted by water
Location of Functional Groups
Functional groups are groups of atoms that occur within organic molecules and confer specific chemical properties to those molecules. When functional groups are shown, the organic molecule is sometimes denoted as “R.” Functional groups are found along the “carbon backbone” of macromolecules which is formed by chains and/or rings of carbon atoms with the occasional substitution of an element such as nitrogen or oxygen. Molecules with other elements in their carbon backbone are substituted hydrocarbons. Each of the four types of macromolecules—proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids—has its own characteristic set of functional groups that contributes greatly to its differing chemical properties and its function in living organisms.
Properties of Functional Groups
A functional group can participate in specific chemical reactions. Some of the important functional groups in biological molecules include: hydroxyl, methyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, phosphate, and sulfhydryl groups. These groups play an important role in the formation of molecules like DNA, proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids.
Classifying Functional Groups
Functional groups are usually classified as hydrophobic or hydrophilic depending on their charge or polarity. An example of a hydrophobic group is the non-polar methane molecule. Among the hydrophilic functional groups is the carboxyl group found in amino acids, some amino acid side chains, and the fatty acid heads that form triglycerides and phospholipids. This carboxyl group ionizes to release hydrogen ions (H+) from the COOH group resulting in the negatively charged COO− group; this contributes to the hydrophilic nature of whatever molecule it is found on. Other functional groups, such as the carbonyl group, have a partially negatively charged oxygen atom that may form hydrogen bonds with water molecules, again making the molecule more hydrophilic. The functional groups shown here are found in many different biological molecules, where “R” is the organic molecule.
| Important Functional Groups in Biology | ||
|---|---|---|
| Functional Group | Structure | Properties |
| Hydroxyl |  |
Polar |
| Methyl |  |
Nonpolar |
| Carbonyl |  |
Polar |
| Carboxyl |  |
Charged, ionized to release H+. Since carboxyl groups can release H+ ions into a solution, they are considered acidic. |
| Amino |  |
Charged, accepts H+ to form NH3+. Since amino groups can remove H+ from solution, they are considered basic. |
| Phosphate |  |
Charged, ionizes to release H+. Since phosphate groups can release H+ ions into solution, they are considered acidic. |
| Sulfhydryl |  |
Polar |
Hydrogen Bonds between Functional Groups
Hydrogen bonds between functional groups (within the same molecule or between different molecules) are important to the function of many macromolecules and help them to fold properly and maintain the appropriate shape needed to function correctly. Hydrogen bonds are also involved in various recognition processes, such as DNA complementary base pairing and the binding of an enzyme to its substrate.
Hydrogen bonds in DNA: Hydrogen bonds connect two strands of DNA together to create the double-helix structure.
Types of Biological Macromolecules
Biological macromolecules, the large molecules necessary for life, include carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins.
Learning Objectives
Identify the four major classes of biological macromolecules
Key Takeaways
Key Points
- Biological macromolecules are important cellular components and perform a wide array of functions necessary for the survival and growth of living organisms.
- The four major classes of biological macromolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Key Terms
- polymer: A relatively large molecule consisting of a chain or network of many identical or similar monomers chemically bonded to each other.
- monomer: A relatively small molecule that can form covalent bonds with other molecules of this type to form a polymer.
Nutrients are the molecules that living organisms require for survival and growth but that animals and plants cannot synthesize themselves. Animals obtain nutrients by consuming food, while plants pull nutrients from soil.
Sources of biological macromolecules: Foods such as bread, fruit, and cheese are rich sources of biological macromolecules.
Many critical nutrients are biological macromolecules. The term “macromolecule” was first coined in the 1920s by Nobel laureate Hermann Staudinger. Staudinger was the first to propose that many large biological molecules are built by covalently linking smaller biological molecules together.
Living organisms are made up of chemical building blocks: All organisms are composed of a variety of these biological macromolecules.
Monomers and Polymers
Biological macromolecules play a critical role in cell structure and function. Most (but not all) biological macromolecules are polymers, which are any molecules constructed by linking together many smaller molecules, called monomers. Typically all the monomers in a polymer tend to be the same, or at least very similar to each other, linked over and over again to build up the larger macromolecule. These simple monomers can be linked in many different combinations to produce complex biological polymers, just as a few types of Lego blocks can build anything from a house to a car.
Monomers and polymers: Many small monomer subunits combine to form this carbohydrate polymer.
Examples of these monomers and polymers can be found in the sugar you might put in your coffee or tea. Regular table sugar is the disaccharide sucrose (a polymer), which is composed of the monosaccharides fructose and glucose (which are monomers). If we were to string many carbohydrate monomers together we could make a polysaccharide like starch. The prefixes “mono-” (one),”di-” (two),and “poly-” (many) will tell you how many of the monomers have been joined together in a molecule.
The molecule sucrose (common table sugar): The carbohydrate monosaccharides (fructose and glucose) are joined to make the disaccharide sucrose.
Biological macromolecules all contain carbon in ring or chain form, which means they are classified as organic molecules. They usually also contain hydrogen and oxygen, as well as nitrogen and additional minor elements.
Four Classes of Biological Macromolecules
There are four major classes of biological macromolecules:
- carbohydrates
- lipids
- proteins
- nucleic acids
Each of these types of macromolecules performs a wide array of important functions within the cell; a cell cannot perform its role within the body without many different types of these crucial molecules. In combination, these biological macromolecules make up the majority of a cell’s dry mass. (Water molecules make up the majority of a cell’s total mass.) All the molecules both inside and outside of cells are situated in a water-based (i.e., aqueous) environment, and all the reactions of biological systems are occurring in that same environment.
Interactive: Monomers and Polymers: Carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids are built from small molecular units that are connected to each other by strong covalent bonds. The small molecular units are called monomers (mono means one, or single), and they are linked together into long chains called polymers (poly means many, or multiple). Each different type of macromolecule, except lipids, is built from a different set of monomers that resemble each other in composition and size. Lipids are not polymers, because they are not built from monomers (units with similar composition).
Dehydration Synthesis
In dehydration synthesis, monomers combine with each other via covalent bonds to form polymers.
Learning Objectives
Explain dehydration (or condensation) reactions
Key Takeaways
Key Points
- During dehydration synthesis, either the hydrogen of one monomer combines with the hydroxyl group of another monomer releasing a molecule of water, or two hydrogens from one monomer combine with one oxygen from the other monomer releasing a molecule of water.
- The monomers that are joined via dehydration synthesis reactions share electrons and form covalent bonds with each other.
- As additional monomers join via multiple dehydration synthesis reactions, this chain of repeating monomers begins to form a polymer.
- Complex carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and proteins are all examples of polymers that are formed by dehydration synthesis.
- Monomers like glucose can join together in different ways and produce a variety of polymers. Monomers like mononucleotides and amino acids join together in different sequences to produce a variety of polymers.
Key Terms
- covalent bond: A type of chemical bond where two atoms are connected to each other by the sharing of two or more electrons.
- monomer: A relatively small molecule which can be covalently bonded to other monomers to form a polymer.
Dehydration Synthesis
Most macromolecules are made from single subunits, or building blocks, called monomers. The monomers combine with each other via covalent bonds to form larger molecules known as polymers. In doing so, monomers release water molecules as byproducts. This type of reaction is known as dehydration synthesis, which means “to put together while losing water.” It is also considered to be a condensation reaction since two molecules are condensed into one larger molecule with the loss of a smaller molecule (the water.)
In a dehydration synthesis reaction between two un-ionized monomers, such as monosaccharide sugars, the hydrogen of one monomer combines with the hydroxyl group of another monomer, releasing a molecule of water in the process. The removal of a hydrogen from one monomer and the removal of a hydroxyl group from the other monomer allows the monomers to share electrons and form a covalent bond. Thus, the monomers that are joined together are being dehydrated to allow for synthesis of a larger molecule.
A dehydration synthesis reaction involving un-ionized moners..: In the dehydration synthesis reaction between two molecules of glucose, a hydroxyl group from the first glucose is combined with a hydrogen from the second glucose, creating a covalent bond that links the two monomeric sugars (monosaccharides) together to form the dissacharide maltose. In the process, a water molecule is formed.
When the monomers are ionized, such as is the case with amino acids in an aqueous environment like cytoplasm, two hydrogens from the positively-charged end of one monomer are combined with an oxygen from the negatively-charged end of another monomer, again forming water, which is released as a side-product, and again joining the two monomers with a covalent bond.
As additional monomers join via multiple dehydration synthesis reactions, the chain of repeating monomers begins to form a polymer. Different types of monomers can combine in many configurations, giving rise to a diverse group of macromolecules. Three of the four major classes of biological macromolecules (complex carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and proteins), are composed of monomers that join together via dehydration synthesis reactions. Complex carbohydrates are formed from monosaccharides, nucleic acids are formed from mononucleotides, and proteins are formed from amino acids.
There is great diversity in the manner by which monomers can combine to form polymers. For example, glucose monomers are the constituents of starch, glycogen, and cellulose. These three are polysaccharides, classified as carbohydrates, that have formed as a result of multiple dehydration synthesis reactions between glucose monomers. However, the manner by which glucose monomers join together, specifically locations of the covalent bonds between connected monomers and the orientation (stereochemistry) of the covalent bonds, results in these three different polysaccharides with varying properties and functions. In nucleic acids and proteins, the location and stereochemistry of the covalent linkages connecting the monomers do not vary from molecule to molecule, but instead the multiple kinds of monomers (five different monomers in nucleic acids, A, G, C, T, and U mononucleotides; 21 different amino acids monomers in proteins) are combined in a huge variety of sequences. Each protein or nucleic acid with a different sequence is a different molecule with different properties.
